Which jobs are most exposed to extreme heat and why it matters for Europe s economy

Heat risk is now a workplace risk

One in five workers in the European Union is exposed to high temperatures at work, making extreme heat one of the fastest-growing occupational risks linked to climate change, according to the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (EU-OSHA). That exposure is concentrated in particular sectors and occupations, with implications not only for workers health but also for productivity, public services and national economies across Europe.

Those most at risk are people who work outdoors or in hot indoor environments. Agriculture and construction consistently top the list, followed by transport, manufacturing, emergency services and tourism. The International Labour Organization (ILO) points out that farm workers face prolonged direct sunlight while performing strenuous tasks that raise body temperature, and construction workers often do heavy manual labour in protective clothing that impedes cooling.

Eurofounds 2024 European Working Conditions Survey provides a stark snapshot: 68% of agricultural workers and 52% of construction workers report exposure to high temperatures for at least one quarter of their working time. Exposure is also widespread in industry and transport, where roughly a third of workers report similar levels of heat exposure. Overall, the share of European workers exposed to high temperatures for between one quarter and three quarters of their working time rose from 13% in 1995 to 21% in 2024, underlining how commonplace heat exposure has become.

Occupations, gender and vulnerability

Exposure varies more by occupation than by broad sector. Skilled agricultural workers are the most exposed: 72% report working in high temperatures for at least a quarter of their time. Craft workers follow at 53%, plant and machine operators at 42%, and elementary occupations at 40%. By contrast, managers, professionals and clerical staff report much lower exposure.

Men are significantly more likely to face heat at work because many high-risk occupations remain male-dominated: 34% of men report exposure for at least one quarter of their working time, compared with 18% of women. The groups most affected also include large numbers of seasonal, migrant and self-employed workers, who often have weaker employment protections and lower union representation.

Heat is more than an immediate discomfort. EU-OSHA warns that prolonged exposure can cause dehydration, heat exhaustion and heat stroke and can aggravate cardiovascular and respiratory illnesses. High temperatures also impair concentration and slow reaction times, increasing accident risk. Occupational risks differ: farmers face higher exposure to tick-borne diseases, allergens and air pollution; construction workers contend with urban heat islands that elevate temperatures above surroundings; and emergency personnel firefighters, police and paramedics often operate in the most dangerous conditions while responding to heat-related crises.

Economic impacts and productivity losses

A recent report from Allianz Trade highlights a crucial economic inflection point: once temperatures exceed roughly 30°C, productivity losses accelerate sharply and can become a structural drag on growth rather than a temporary weather shock. In practice, that means heatwaves can reduce output across entire supply chains.

Construction and agriculture are particularly affected because outdoor work is often slowed or halted during the hottest hours. Manufacturing sees higher cooling costs and lower worker throughput. Transport networks suffer as roads soften and rail tracks expand or buckle, leading to delays and higher maintenance expenses. Electricity systems come under strain as demand for air conditioning climbs just as thermal efficiency falls: warmer cooling water reduces the performance of gas-, coal- and nuclear-fired plants.

Agriculture faces additional direct losses: crops and livestock exposed to prolonged heat and drought increase the risk of lower yields and higher food prices. Eurostat data shows agriculture accounted for 1.2% of EU gross domestic product in 2024, though that share exceeds 3% in some countries such as Greece and reaches 2.5% in Romania. Construction, meanwhile, contributes around 9% of EU GDP and employs roughly 18 million people making it both a major industry and a sector highly exposed to rising temperatures.

Policy responses and protecting workers

The recent heatwave across Europe has intensified calls for stronger workplace protections. Several countries have already tightened or activated heat-at-work measures: restricting outdoor work during the hottest hours, shortening shifts, and requiring employers to provide water, shade and extra rest breaks.

This week the European Trade Union Confederation urged the European Commission to adopt binding EU-wide rules on occupational heat exposure. Proposals include a maximum safe working temperature, mandatory paid cooling breaks and guaranteed access to drinking water. Proponents argue the current patchwork of national rules leaves many workers notably seasonal and migrant labourers insufficiently protected.

Employers and policymakers face a choice. Without coordinated action, rising temperatures will increasingly translate into higher health costs, lost working hours, disrupted infrastructure and lower GDP growth. With thoughtful regulation and workplace adaptations improved scheduling, cooling measures, protective guidelines and stronger enforcement Europe can reduce the human and economic toll of heat while maintaining productivity.

As climate trends point to hotter summers and more frequent extremes, heat at work is no longer a niche occupational health issue: it is a mainstream economic risk that will shape labour markets, public budgets and corporate balance sheets across the continent.